Angels and the Law: A closer look at Galatians 3:19-21

“Why then the law? It was added because of transgressions, until the offspring should come to whom the promise had been made, and it was put in place through angels by an intermediary. Now an intermediary implies more than one, but God is one.

Is the law then contrary to the promises of God? Certainly not! For if a law had been given that could give life, then righteousness would indeed be by the law. But the Scripture imprisoned everything under sin, so that the promise by faith in Jesus Christ might be given to those who believe.”

(Galatians 3:19-22 ESV)

In exploring Galatians 3:19-21, a passage that delves into the nuanced relationship between the law and the promise, one is drawn into a realm of different of theological perspectives. This passage, often overlooked, offers profound insights into the interplay between divine promises, human transgressions, and the role of mediation—particularly that of angels.

In the Hebrew Bible, although no single term precisely corresponds to the English word “angels,” there exists a rich vocabulary for describing such beings. Let’s explore some of these expressions:

1. Bĕnê (hā) ĕlōhı̂m (lit. “sons of God”): These grammatical constructions identify generic categories of divine beings, not genealogical relationships. They denote their divine status (Gen 6:2, 4; Job 1:6; 2:1; 38:7).

2. Bĕnê ʾēlı̂m (“sons of gods, divine beings”): Another term emphasizing their divine nature (Ps 29:1; 89:7—Eng 89:6).

3. ʾĕlōhı̂m (“gods”): Used to describe these heavenly beings (Ps 82:1).

4. Qĕdōšı̂m (“holy ones”): Denotes their special sanctity (Ps 89:6, 8—Eng 89:5, 7).

5. Malʾāk (“messenger, envoy”): The most common functional term. It is from the translation of malʾāk in the LXX (Greek aggelos) that the English word “angel” derives. Both aggelos and malʾāk can refer equally to human or angelic beings.

6. Judg 13:6: In one instance, a character implies a distinction between a “man of God” (ʾı̂š ʾĕlōhı̂m) and a “messenger/angel of Yahweh” (malʾāk yhwh).

The Vulgate introduced a systematic distinction between angelic emissaries (Lat angelus) and human ones (Lat nuntius). However, even in the LXX, angelos was beginning to take on the quasi-technical meaning of heavenly being. For example, angelos is used for terms like bĕnê (hā) ʾĕlōhı̂m (Gen 6:2; Deut 32:8; Job 1:6; 2:1; 38:7), ʾĕlōhı̂m (Ps 8:6; 97:7; 138:1), and śār (Dan 10:21; 12:1), and in one case, malʾāk is translated as theos (Qoh 5:55—Eng 5:6). Extrabiblical literature from the late Second Temple period also sheds light on these heavenly beings.

During the late Second Temple period, there was a surge of interest in angels, leading to the development of various terms to describe these celestial beings. Let’s explore some of these additional terms:

1. Watchers (Aram ꜥı̂rı̂n): These are mentioned in texts such as the Book of Daniel (Dan 4:10, 14, 20), the Book of Jubilees (Jub. 4:15, 22), and the Book of Enoch (1 En. 1:5). The Watchers are associated with divine observation and intervention.

2. Spirits (Heb rûḥôt): These appear in various contexts, including the Dead Sea Scrolls (1QS 1:11; 1QS 12:9), the Book of Jubilees (Jub. 15:31), and the Book of Enoch (1 En. 15:4). They represent supernatural entities and may refer to both good and evil spirits.

3. Glorious Ones (Heb nikbĕdı̂m): This term occurs in the Hodayot (1QH 10:8) and the Book of the Secrets of Enoch (2 En. 21:1, 3). The exact meaning is not always clear, but it likely refers to exalted or majestic beings.

4. Thrones (Gk thronoi): Mentioned in the Testament of Levi (T. Levi 3:8) and the Book of Enoch (2 En. 20:1), thrones signify angelic authority and governance.

5. Authorities (Gk exousiai): Found in the Book of Enoch (1 En. 61:10) and the Testament of Levi (T. Levi 3:8), authorities denote angelic power and influence.

6. Powers (Gk dynamis): Also present in the Book of Enoch (2 En. 20:1), powers represent divine strength and might.

These terms provide insight into the rich speculation surrounding angels of that era, and significantly influenced later Jewish thought and early Christianity. While some refer to specific ranks or functions, others emphasize the awe-inspiring nature of these heavenly beings.

“Now the law came in to increase the trespass, but where sin increased, grace abounded all the more, so that, as sin reigned in death, grace also might reign through righteousness leading to eternal life through Jesus Christ our Lord.”

(Romans 5:20-21 ESV)

Galatians 3:19-21 echoes a sentiment reminiscent of Romans 5:20, albeit with a distinct focus and context. Here, Paul elucidates on the introduction of the law—a divine ordinance that was seemingly interjected into the human narrative. However, unlike Romans, the mention of angels in Galatians sheds a unique light on the administration and mediation surrounding the law.

Galatians 3:19-21 echoes a sentiment reminiscent of Romans 5:20, albeit with a distinct focus and context. Here, Paul elucidates on the introduction of the law—a divine ordinance that was seemingly interjected into the human narrative. However, unlike Romans, the mention of angels in Galatians sheds a unique light on the administration and mediation surrounding the law.

The statement in Romans 5:20 bears striking resemblance to another passage, except that it does not mention angels. When Paul uses the phrase "was added" (προσετέθη), he does not imply that the law supplemented the promise.

Instead, he means that the law was introduced into the human situation for a distinct purpose—one entirely different from that of the promise. The use of the verb παρεισέρχομαι (which carries a somewhat sinister nuance in Romans 2:4) in Romans 5:20 ("the law came in by a side road") sheds light on the intended meaning of προσετέθη here.

Certain Western manuscripts present the simpler verb ἐτέθη ("was laid down") in place of προσετέθη. However, this variant is often accompanied by an alteration of παραβάσεων (transgressions) to παραδόσεων (traditions). This change was likely made to avoid what some scribes or editors considered a scandalous statement: that the purpose of the law was to produce transgressions. Another variant replaces παραβάσεων with πράξεων, resulting in a reference to the "law of works."

The phrase "until the coming of (Abraham’s) offspring to whom the promise had been made" (ἄχρις οὗ ἔλθῃ τὸ σπέρμα ᾧ ἐπηγγείλατο) refers to Christ (cf. verse 16). The perfect tense of ἐπηγγείλατο either indicates pluperfect force or emphasizes the enduring validity of the promise, similar to the perfect tense κεχαρίσται in verse 18.

In summary, the law was meant to remain in effect until the arrival of Christ. This concept is further elaborated in verses 23–25. Some scholars propose that Paul’s Jewish education led him to believe that the law would be abolished with the advent of the messianic age. Consequently, when he recognized Jesus as the Messiah, he drew this logical conclusion. Early Jewish doctrine divided world history into three epochs: the age of chaos, the age of law, and the messianic age, each lasting 2,000 years, culminating in the eternal sabbath rest. Paul’s doctrine was said to originate from what scholars referred to as "the school of Elijah." This phrase carried a sense of antiquity similar to the expression "a commandment of Moses from Sinai," which denoted Jewish legal traditions. Those familiar with this doctrine understood that if the "Days of the Messiah" had begun, it signaled the end of the Torah era. Conversely, if the Law (Torah) still held its validity, it implied that the Messiah had not yet arrived. This perspective sheds light on the context in which Paul operated and how he grappled with the intersection of Jewish tradition and the emerging Christian faith.

The significance of Paul’s earlier teachings on this matter may be considered minor. The driving force behind his conviction that Christ had superseded the Torah was rooted in the logic of his transformative experience on the Damascus road. The reference to angelic mediation in Galatians 3:19 might initially seem perplexing, given the absence of explicit biblical narratives detailing such celestial involvement in the giving of the law. However, Paul's theological insight unveils a deeper layer of understanding—one that transcends conventional interpretations.

Scholars have long debated the significance of angelic administration within the Mosaic covenant. While the Old Testament lacks explicit references to angels directly administering the law, Paul's invocation of angelic mediation invites us to reconsider the dynamics at play during the giving of the law at Sinai.

Drawing parallels with other ancient texts, such as Jubilees and Josephus, provides additional context for Paul's assertion. These texts, while not canonical, offer glimpses into early Jewish thought regarding divine mediation and angelic involvement in transmitting divine knowledge. Paul's audience, familiar with these traditions, would have recognized the theological implications embedded within his words.

The phrase "administered through angels" appears in Acts 7:53 (referring to Stephen) and Hebrews 2:2 (describing the law as "the word spoken through angels"). Interestingly, the Old Testament lacks explicit references to angelic involvement in law administration. The closest resemblance is found in Deuteronomy 33:2, where Yahweh’s theophany is described: "Yahweh came from Sinai…from his holy ones; from his right hand came a fiery law for them." The exact meaning of "a fiery law" remains uncertain. The Septuagint (LXX) translates this passage as;

“The Lord came from Sinai and displayed himself to us from Seir and made haste from Mount Paran together with myriads of Kadesh, from his right, angels with him.”

Rick Brannan et al., eds., The Lexham English Septuagint (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2012), Dt 33:2." Paul, like Stephen, alludes to the angelic administration of the law as a well-known concept. However, finding explicit references to this administration before the writing of this epistle proves challenging. In Jubilees 1:29, the angel of the presence delivers the tablets containing "the law and the testimony of the weeks" to Moses, but this cannot be directly equated with angels administering the law. Philo, in his work On Dreams (1.141–143), describes the angels seen by Jacob in his Bethel dream as "mediators" (μεσίται).

According to Philo, when the people were at Sinai, they requested that an angel mediate between them and God, fearing direct communication would lead to their demise (Exodus 20:19). Interestingly, this request was actually directed to Moses, not an angel. Notably, neither Jubilees nor Philo explicitly mention angelic administration of the law.

A comparison can also be drawn with the Testament of Dan (6:2), which encourages drawing near to God and the angel who intercedes. However, this angel serves as the "mediator (μεσίτης) of God and man for the peace of Israel," akin to Michael in Daniel 12:1, defending Israel against the "kingdom of the enemy."

The earliest non-biblical reference to angelic involvement in transmitting divine knowledge appears in a speech attributed to Herod by Josephus (Antiquities 15.136). Herod asserts that they have learned the noblest doctrines and holiest laws through angels sent from God (δἰ ἀγγέλων παρὰ τοῦ θεοῦ). Some scholars argue that the term ἄγγελοι here refers to human messengers or prophets rather than celestial beings. W. D. Davies, in his note on Josephus, concurs with this view, emphasizing that even if they are angels, it does not necessarily imply a limited duration for the law.

For Josephus, the law remains enduring (Apion 2.277). Josephus, in his work Antiquities of the Jews (15.136), attributes a speech to Herod where Herod asserts that "we have learned the noblest of our doctrines and the holiest of our laws through angels sent from God" (δἰ ἀγγέλων παρὰ τοῦ θεοῦ). However, scholars have debated whether these "angels" refer to celestial beings or human messengers (such as prophets or priests). Morton Smith and others associate this concept with the idea that the Law was subject to change, as seen in Acts 7:53, Galatians 3:19, and Hebrews 2:2.

The Jewish commentaries on Exodus 20:18 and Numbers 12:5 assert that myriads of angels attended God during the law-giving at Sinai. However, this angelic presence does not necessarily imply that angels were the administrators of the law. Furthermore, the mention of angels as mediators in Galatians 3:19 prompts reflection on the nature of divine communication and revelation. Paul's assertion challenges conventional interpretations, urging readers to contemplate the intricate web of celestial and terrestrial agencies involved in the divine-human encounter.

In the New Testament, Stephen argues that the people demonstrated impiety by disregarding the law, even though it was administered by beings as high and holy as angels. The writer of Hebrews emphasizes that rejecting the saving message brought by the Lord Himself carries a more severe penalty than rejecting a message mediated by angels. For his polemic argument, Paul uses the angelic administration as evidence of the law’s inferiority compared to the direct promise given by God.

Regarding whether these administrators of the law were good or bad angels, some rabbis suggested that they were not necessarily benevolent. However, if they were the ministering angels who attended God at Sinai, they would be considered good angels. The identity of the mediator has often been linked to Moses. The repeated phrase "ἐν χειρὶ Μωϋσέως" (in the hand of Moses) appears in the Septuagint (LXX) in Leviticus 26:46, Numbers 4:37, and other passages. Moses indeed served as the mediator between the Israelites and God during their wilderness journey. Philo, in Vita Mosis (Life of Moses) 2.166, refers to Moses as both a mediator (μεσίτης) and a reconciler (διαλλακτής). Similarly, in the pre-Pauline work Assumption of Moses (1:14), Moses refers to himself as the mediator of the covenant (τῆς διαθήκης μεσίτης), as quoted by Gelasius Cyzicenus in Commentary on the Acts of the Synod of Nicaea (2.18).

The Pentateuch clearly portrays Moses as the intermediary, receiving the law from God to convey to the people (as seen in Deuteronomy 5:5, "I stood between [ἀνὰ μέσον] Yahweh and you") and presenting their pleas to God (Deuteronomy 5:22–31). A. Oepke, in Theological Dictionary of the New Testament (TDNT IV, 615, 618), draws parallels between this role and the term sarsôr (meaning "agent" or "commissioner") applied to Moses in rabbinical literature. For instance, Rabbi Samuel b. Isaac (around AD 300) states in the Jerusalem Talmud (Megillah 4.74d) that "the Torah was given by the hand(s) of a sarsôr," which closely aligns with Paul’s concept of ἐν χειρὶ μεσίτου (in the hand of a mediator).

While some find it obvious that the mediator refers to Moses, others encounter more complexity. The question of the mediator’s identity is even more challenging than understanding the role of the angels. Some scholars associate the mediator closely with the angels, leading them to think more readily of the angels’ mediator rather than the Israelites’ mediator. H.-J. Schoeps even suggests that Paul viewed Moses as mediating between the angels and the people. However, Paul has additional insights to share about the mediator.

The suggestion that Moses serves as the mediator in question has been put forth, leading some to conclude that Moses acts as a "functionary" of the angels—a role aligned with powers opposing God. However, the context does not strongly support this view. Moses was not qualified to represent the angels; his qualifications lay in serving as the people’s representative. In fact, Moses effectively fulfilled this role on numerous occasions. Yet, verse 19 closely associates the μεσίτης (mediator) with the angels, hinting that a mediator of the angels may indeed be implied. If Moses is not the angels’ mediator, then who could fulfill this role?

The negative in the former clause logically corresponds to ἑνός, but it is attracted to the verb. Each of the two statements in verse 20 makes sense independently. It is self-evident that a mediator requires at least two parties between whom to mediate; mediating for only one party is impossible. The theological foundation of both Judaism and Christianity rests on the concept that God is one: εἷς ὁ θεός (Romans 3:30); ἡμῖν εἷς θεὸς ὁ πατὴρ (1 Corinthians 8:6).

One natural interpretation is that Paul refers to God’s unilateral action when making the promise to Abraham—an act of sovereign grace. In giving the law, God employed mediation; in bestowing the promise, He acted independently, as one (εἷς). No angelic intervention or human mediation played a role: God promised, and Abraham believed. However, expressing this idea as "God is one" seems unusual.

A. Vanhoye proposes an intriguing perspective in his work. He suggests considering the angel of the presence who accompanied Moses in the wilderness and "spoke to him at Mount Sinai," as mentioned by Stephen (Acts 7:38; cf. Exodus 23:20f.; 32:34; 33:14). According to Vanhoye, this angel served as the μεσίτης (mediator) of the angels, paralleling Moses’ role as the μεσίτης of the Israelites.

Drawing a comparison, he likens their roles to the two representatives in the valley of Elah: Goliath representing the Philistines and David representing the Israelites. While the valley of Elah saw these representatives clash in conflict, at Sinai, they met for communication (cf. 1 Samuel [LXX 1 Kings] 17:4, 23; in verse 23, LXXA renders ʾı̂š bēnayim as ἀνήρ ὁ ἀμε σσαῖος, likely a corruption of ἀνήρ ὁ μεσαῖος, meaning "the middleman"). Overall, Vanhoye’s interpretation stands out as a compelling solution to this complex issue.

Unveiling Paul's Theological Depth:

Paul's epistles resonate with echoes of theological profundity, and Galatians 3:19-21 is no exception. Here, Paul elucidates on the introduction of divine law into the human narrative, portraying it as a divine ordinance interjected into the course of history. Unlike Romans, where the focus is on the law's entry, Galatians uniquely highlights the role of angels in its administration. This distinction prompts us to delve deeper into Paul's theological framework and the implications of angelic mediation within it.

Interpreting Linguistic Nuances:

A careful examination of linguistic nuances enriches our understanding of Paul's discourse. The use of phrases like "was added" (προσετέθη) and "came in by a side road" (παρεισέρχομαι) in Romans 5:20 sheds light on the intended meaning behind the introduction of the law. Similarly, variants in certain manuscripts offer insights into the perceived purpose of the law, whether to produce transgressions or uphold traditions. These nuances invite us to delve deeper into Paul's theological reflections on the law's role in human redemption.

Exploring Christological Themes:

Central to Paul's discourse is the Christological theme woven throughout his theological tapestry. The phrase "until the coming of (Abraham’s) offspring to whom the promise had been made" (ἄχρις οὗ ἔλθῃ τὸ σπέρμα ᾧ ἐπηγγείλατο) alludes to Christ, emphasizing the enduring validity of the promise made to Abraham. This concept is further elaborated in verses 23–25, where Paul elucidates on the relationship between the law and the advent of the messianic age. Through Paul's reflections, we discern the intricate interplay between Jewish tradition and emerging Christian faith, rooted in the anticipation of the fulfillment of divine promises in Christ.

Reimagining Angelic Administration:

Paul's invocation of angelic mediation in Galatians 3:19 challenges conventional interpretations and invites us to reimagine the dynamics at play during the giving of the law at Sinai. Drawing parallels with ancient texts such as Jubilees and Josephus offers additional context for Paul's assertion, highlighting the early Jewish thought regarding divine mediation and angelic involvement in transmitting divine knowledge. Through Paul's theological lens, we gain insights into the celestial hierarchy and its role in divine communication and revelation.

To conclude, Paul's choice of language in Galatians 3:19, employing the phrase "administered through angels" (διαταγεὶς δἰ ἀγγέλων), draws attention to a celestial dimension often overlooked in discussions on the Mosaic Law. This phrase serves as a pivot point for understanding the divine mediation embedded within the legal framework established at Sinai.

The juxtaposition of angelic mediation with the unilateral promise to Abraham underscores the distinctiveness of divine revelation. Whereas the promise to Abraham was direct and unmediated, the giving of the law involved angelic intermediaries—an aspect that underscores the temporary and provisional nature of the Mosaic covenant.

Paul's theological reflection in Galatians 3:19-21 serves as a poignant reminder of the complexity inherent within divine-human relationships. By weaving together threads of angelic mediation, divine promises, and human transgressions, Paul invites readers into a deeper exploration of the mysteries of God's interaction with humanity.

Galatians 3:19-21 stands as a testament to Paul's profound theological insight and his ability to unveil layers of meaning within seemingly mundane passages of scripture. Through his exploration of angelic administration, Paul challenges readers to reconsider their understanding of divine revelation and invites them into a deeper contemplation of the celestial forces at work within the human story.